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This course will explore the concept of physiological performance, fitness and survival in different contexts. It will discuss what performance is and how it can be measured. The physiological and metabolic adaptations responsible for changes in performance will be examined under different environmental conditions as well as the influences of health, gender and age. Basics of human conditioning will be covered, with an emphasis on the physiological differences between basic conditioning principles. The different conditioning techniques will be related to training outcomes and their physiological backgrounds.
Course Co-ordinators: Dr Michael Scholz (ext.8022); m.e.Scholz@abdn.ac.uk
• To provide a basic understanding of performance and how it can be measured
• To provide a detailed introduction to sport and exercise physiology
• To provide an understanding of fundamental types of conditioning, and their physiological backgrounds
• To provide the knowledge about conditioning principles that give the basics for an advanced understanding of specific and specialised training and conditioning procedures to improve performance and fitness
A series of lectures and demonstration on performance, fitness and survival and how it can be improved by different conditioning principles
Lecture 1: Course Introduction – Dr Michael Scholz - Distribution of course manuals, outline of the course and general introduction
Performance & Survival - Dr Alison Jenkinson
Lecture 2: Integrative physiology. Cellular systems work together in an organised way to form organ systems. In this lecture we shall consider how organ systems may work together to influence the whole body response to a range of external factors and influences.
Lecture 3: How normal is normal? A wide range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that can influence ‘normal’ bodily functions. These are as diverse as gender, age, health, fitness and environmental conditions. Is it possible to define normal values for bodily functions under ‘resting’ or ‘active’ conditions?
Measuring Performance - Dr Henning Wackerhage
Lecture 4: Adapt to survive. Does physical performance equate with survival? How far do external factors influence survival? Does practice make perfect? Can you live forever? Illustrated with some big hearted examples.
Lecture 5: Demonstration. A short demonstration to illustrate how easy it is to measure cardio-respiratory variables, but difficult to use them to estimate fitness, performance or health.
Lecture 6: How does circulation & ventilation work (together)? This is the easy bit where we revisit some of the basics of cardio-vascular physiology and try to get to grips with a detailed example of integration.
Lecture 7: Fick as a plank, what is cardiac output? We shall use the Fick Principle, first described by Adolph Fick in 1870, as the detailed example of integration. It will be used to estimate cardiac output. Try to remember your normal cardio-respiratory values!
Lecture 8: Is VO2 max the gold standard of performance measures? … or is it something that was invented to frighten and confuse undergraduates? Each individuals maximal rate of oxygen consumption defines their VO2 max and we shall explore how far this is an indicator of the ability to perform endurance exercise.
Survival of the Fittest - Dr Alison Jenkinson
Lecture 9: Walking the tightrope. Diet and health. The balance between deficiency, optimum intakes and toxicity.
Lecture 10: Eat to succeed Diet and performance. How altering dietary macronutrients can affect performance and survival
Lecture 11: A little goes a long way Diet and performance. How altering dietary micronutrients can affect performance and survival.
Lecture 12: Too fat for that or too thin to win? Size and survival, size and performance. Measurement of body size.
Lecture 13: The rhythm of life A day in the life of humans. Circadian rhythms - 24h biological rhythms.
Lecture 14: Food for thought Food as fuel. An introduction to measuring energy expenditure and energy requirements.
Performance in the environment - Dr Stuart Gray
Lecture 15: If you can’t stand the heat … The physiological responses seen during exercise in a hot environment and their affects on performance.
Lecture 16: Exercise during an ice age, or maybe just Scotland! The physiological effects seen during exercise in the cold and their affects on performance.
Lecture 17: Exercise for the high-flyer. Many athletic events take place at high altitude and this has profound changes in human physiology and exercise performance.
Lecture 18: Extreme environments, how does the body adapt? Discussion of the adaptations of the human body to constant exposure to extreme temperature and altitudes.
Lecture 19: Exercising in a big city, good idea? When the Olympic games was awarded to Beijing in 2008 several questions were asked about the effect of air pollutants on exercise performance and health.
Lecture 20: Diving Physiology – How low can you go? Diving is a relatively common past time and, without a proper understanding of the physiological changes occurring, can be dangerous.
Performance and Health - Dr Derek Scott
Lecture 21: Where do we start? The Physiology of Gestation & Childhood Prenatal growth and development. Role of maternal physiology in protecting the foetus. Challenges of infancy, childhood and adolescence. Difficulties in comparing children and adults physiologically.
Lecture 22: The Physiology of Ageing – do we really wear out? Definition of different stages of life. Who are the elderly? Theories of ageing. Physiological changes of ageing. Functional problems associated with ageing. How do we physiologically define death? Implications of the ageing population.
Lecture 23: Cellular Adaptation, Injury & Death How do cells adapt to increased work demands or threats to survival? Definition of atrophy, hypertrophy, dysplasia and metaplasia. Intracellular accumulation of substances. Causes of cell injury. Mechanisms of cell injury. Reversible cell injury and cell death. Cellular ageing.
Lecture 24: Red Alert! How Do We Respond To Physiological Emergencies? One of the most elegant and conserved examples of integrative physiology is the “fight or flight” response which we exhibit during times of stress or emergency. However, during physiological emergencies or threats to survival, a whole host of physiological processes adapt significantly with the primary aim of keeping us alive until we can get help. This lecture will use the example of someone who has been severely injured and explain what physiological adaptations occur in order to promote survival.
Lecture 25: Does One Drug Fit All? When we are ill, most of us are willing to take medications to assist our recovery. By and large, most drugs on the market work well and safely for the majority of the population, but there are individuals for whom this is not the case. These people may require alternative therapies to be used, or the dosage/formulation of the medication to be altered. We will consider the physiological reasons for this variation in responses to drug therapy (i.e. effects of blood flow, BMI/body composition, ethnicity, gender, genetics, renal and liver function, drug therapy in children, drug therapy in the older adult).
Lecture 26: How Do Medications Promote or Hamper Health & Survival? This lecture will briefly consider how drugs promote health and survival, and how they may improve our physiological performance. This will also cover how we can use medications to enable the population to exercise more, which has far more profound and beneficial effects than any single drug. We use examples from the previous lectures to illustrate how medications can be used for different purposes such as promoting exercise and mobility, eradicating threats to survival, encouraging growth and development or assisting failing organ systems to carry out their functions. We will also explore why drugs may have side-effects. Finally, we will review why some governments are considering exercise and psychological techniques as replacements for various drug therapies.
Mental Performance - Laura Mahady
Lecture 27: Sport & Psychology: Why sportspeople use psychology, the psychological processes which affect sporting performance.
Lecture 28: Attitudes & Sport: The attitudes individuals can bring to sport and exercise.
Lecture 29: Motivation: What motivates individuals to take part in sports and exercise? The motive to achieve, and avoid failure.
Lecture 30: Personality & Sport: In pursuit of the athletic personality type. Personality profiling and sports.
Nature of work - Faye Webster
Lecture 31: Principles of Training - Introduction into the nature of work, basic work and conditioning principles including duration, frequency, intensity, overload and specificity.
Lecture 32: Demand Vs Capability – Can you meet the targets? What do we want to be able to do? What do we need to improve on to do this? How can we train towards this? Duration, frequency and intensity and the balance between demand and personal capability
Lecture 33: Demand Vs Capability – The 3 R’s…rest, recovery and reversibility Balance between demand and capability for different types of work.
Lecture 34: Periodisation – how to timetable your work! Can Strength, endurance, speed, power and flexibility be trained at the same time and with the same program? Periodisation covers the planning of a training programme into smaller manageable cycles.
Adaptations to training - Dr Michael Scholz
Lecture 35: Neuromuscular adaptation for fitness Changes in nervous system and skeletal muscle in response to physical strains. Comparisons and mechanisms.
Lecture 36: Metabolic adaptations for fitness – what are the players? Which tissues and organs are involved in improved fitness, how is improved performance achieved, comparison between acute responses and long term adaptations, VO2max as an indicator of performance.
Lecture 37: Metabolic adaptations for fitness - penny-wise and pound-foolish?– energetic housekeeping How we get fit by changing carbohydrate, fat and amino acid stores and utilisation, effects of duration, intensity and fitness.
Lecture 38: Metabolic adaptations for fitness – why do different strains produce different adaptations? Reaction of the metabolism to different types of physical activity – endurance versus resistance – aerobic versus anaerobic.
Practical/Lab Work
You are expected to attend all practical sessions to obtain a class certificate. There are four practicals and each practical will be run two times. During the introduction lecture each student will subscribe to one of the practical groups: A and B Swaps of practical groups are only possible if discussed with the course-coordinator in advance. Practical sessions will be based at the Aberdeen Sports Village. Attendance will be taken at all practical classes. It is important you bring sports apparel and footwear with you since you will play an active part in the class and mild physical exertion may be required. *Students should familiarise themselves with the Energy Zone (fitness suite) prior to practical sessions.
There will be four MCQ assessments and one problem solving assessment during the course. Each MCQ assessment will contain 25 questions and will carry 17.5% of the final mark. The problem solving assessment will carry 30% of the final mark. The assessments are supervised online assessments.
There is a regular programme of seminars given throughout the academic year by invited specialists from within the broad field of biomedical research.
These are usually held on Thursdays from 12noon -1pm in the IMS Building at Foresterhill (check the School or IMS websites for specific locations of seminars).
As you are studying within research-driven disciplines, we strongly feel that you should attend these whenever possible, with a view to broadening your appreciation of medical sciences. You will also be directed to attend any other relevant seminars when they arise.
• McArdle W.D., Katch F.I., Katch V.L.. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition & Human Performance 6th edition. Publishers: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins*
• Silverthorn D.U. – Human Physiology; An Integrated Approach 4th Edition 2006, Pearson. ISBN 0321396235
*Recommended text
The University has strict regulations on plagiarism. If you are unsure about what constitutes plagiarism read the University guide on plagiarism at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/writing
Copying or plagiarising another persons work, either from other students or published material in books or papers and submitted as your own for assessment is considered a form of cheating. This is considered by the University to be a serious offence and will be penalised according to the extent involved and whether it is decided there was an attempt at deliberate deception, or whether bad practice was involved. If you do use information or ideas obtained from textbooks or other published material you must give a precise reference to the source both at the appropriate point in your narrative and in a list of references at the end of your work. Direct quotations from published material should be indicated by quotation marks and referenced in the text as above.
Students are expected to attend all lectures, practical and lab classes and to complete all exercises by the given deadlines. The minimum performance acceptable for the granting of a class certificate is attendance at 75% of the lectures, seminars, practical classes, and presentation of all set course work, written and oral. Failure to do so may result in your class certificate being withheld. The course assessment consists of 100% continuous assessment. There is no written examination in May. The resit examination in August will consist of a two hour MCQ examination and will carry 70% of the final mark. The remaining 30% will be obtained from the problem solving component of the continuous assessment. The overall performance of the student will be expressed as a grade awarded on the attached Common Assessment Scale (CAS).
Dr Alison Jenkinson
Dr Arimantas Lionikas
Dr Laura Mahady
Dr Michael Scholz
Dr Henning Wackerhage
Dr Derek Scott (DAS), Biomedical Sciences Other Staff–University Sport & Exercise Team (S&E) Jackie Davidson (JD) Donald Pirie (DP) Laura Taylor (LT) Faye Webster (FW) Campbell Scott (ECS)
If students have difficulties with any part of the course that they cannot cope with alone they should notify someone immediately. If the problem relates to the subject matter you may be best advised to contact the member of staff who is teaching that part of the course. Students with registered disabilities should contact either the IMS based School Office (Miss Stephanie Sweeney ssweeney@abdn.ac.uk) or the Old Aberdeen office associated with the teaching laboratories (Mrs S.Jones s.jones@abdn.ac.uk ) to ensure that the appropriate facilities have been made available. Otherwise, you are strongly encouraged to contact any of the following as you see appropriate:
Course student representatives.
Course co-ordinator (Dr Michael Scholz).
Convenor of the Biomedical Sciences Staff/Student Liaison Committee (Dr Gordon McEwan).
Adviser of studies.
Disabilities Co-ordinator (Dr Derryck Shewan).
Staff are based at Foresterhill (IMS & Health Sciences Building) and we strongly encourage the use of email or telephone the SMS office. You may be wasting your time to travel to Foresterhill only to find staff unavailable.
Support Available to Students
The University is keen to help you successfully complete your studies. If at any time you feel you need assistance, there is a range of support services available to help you. These include support to assist with unexpected and/or exceptional financial difficulty, support for disabled students and academic learning support through the Student Learning Service. Further details about all these services area available at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/studenthelpguide/.
We value students’ opinions in regard to enhancing the quality of teaching and its delivery; therefore in conjunction with the Students’ Association we support the operation of a Class Representative system.
The students within each course, year, or programme elect representatives by the end of the fourth week of teaching within each half-session. In this school we operate a system of course representatives. Any student registered within a course that wishes to represent a given group of students can stand for election as a class representative. You will be informed when the elections for class representative will take place.
What will it involve?
It will involve speaking to your fellow students about the course you represent. This can include any comments that they may have. You will attend a Staff-Student Liaison Committee and you should represent the views and concerns of the students within this meeting. As a representative you will also be able to contribute to the agenda. You will then feedback to the students after this meeting with any actions that are being taken.
Training
Training for class representatives will be run by the Students Association. Training will take place in the fourth or fifth week of teaching each half-session. For more information about the Class representative system visit www.ausa.org.uk or email the VP Education & Employability vped@abdn.ac.uk. Class representatives are also eligible to undertake the STAR (Students Taking Active Roles) Award, further information about the co-curricular award is available at: www.abdn.ac.uk/careers.
The University operates a system for monitoring students' progress to identify students who may be experiencing difficulties in a particular course. If the Course Co-ordinator has concerns about your attendance and/or performance, the Registry will be informed. The Registry will then write to you (by e-mail in term-time) to ask you to contact the Senate Office in the first instance. Depending on your reason for absence the Senate Office will either deal directly with your case or will refer you to your Adviser of Studies or a relevant support service. This system is operated to provide support for students who may be experiencing difficulties with their studies. Students are required to attend such meetings with their Adviser of Studies in accordance with General Regulation 8.
Set criteria are used to determine when a student should be reported in the monitoring system. You will be asked to meet your Adviser if any of the following criteria apply for this course:-
either (i) if you are absent for a continuous period of two weeks or 25% of the course (whichever is less) without good cause being reported;
or (ii) if you are absent from two small group teaching sessions e.g. (laboratory/tutorial classes) without good cause;
or (iii) if you fail to submit a piece of summative or a substantial piece of formative in-course assessment by the stated deadline
If you fail to respond within the prescribed timescale (as set out in the e-mail or letter) you will be deemed to have withdrawn from the course concerned and will accordingly be ineligible to take the end of course assessment or to enter for the resit. The Registry will write to you (by e-mail in term-time) to inform you of this decision. If you wish consideration to be given to reinstating you in the course you will be required to meet the Convener of the Students' Progress Committee.
Absence from Classes on Medical Grounds
Candidates who wish to establish that their academic performance has been adversely affected by their health are required to secure medical certificates relating to the relevant periods of ill health (see General Regulation 17.3).
The University’s policy on requiring certification for absence on medical grounds or other good cause can be accessed at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix7x5.pdf
You are strongly advised to make yourself fully aware of your responsibilities if you are absent due to illness or other good cause. In particular, you are asked to note that self-certification of absence for periods of absence up to and including eleven weekdays is permissible. However, where absence has prevented attendance at an examination or where it may have affected your performance in an element of assessment or where you have been unable to attend a specified teaching session, you are strongly advised to provide medical certification (see section 3 of the Policy on Certification of Absence for Medical Reasons or Other Good Cause).
Students who attend and complete the work required for a course are considered to have been awarded a ‘Class Certificate’. Being in possession of a valid Class Certificate for a course entitles a student to sit degree examinations for that course. From 2010/11 class certificates will be valid for two years and permit a total of three attempts at the required assessment within that two year period i.e. the first attempt plus up to two resits.
You will receive a University e-mail account when you register with the University Computing Centre. The University will normally use e-mail to communicate with you during term-time. These e-mails will be sent to your University e-mail account, which you can access using Eudora or SquirrelMail.
It is your responsibility to check your e-mail on a regular (at least weekly) basis and to tidy the contents of your e-mail inbox to ensure that it does not go over quota (see http://www.abdn.ac.uk/diss/email/mailquota.hti for guidance on managing your e-mail quota). It is recommended that you use your University e-mail account to read and respond to University communications. If you already have a non-University e-mail account that you use for personal correspondence, it is possible to set up automatic forwarding of messages from your University e-mail account to your personal e-mail address (see http://www.abdn.ac.uk/local/mail.forward/) but, should you do so, it is your responsibility to ensure that this is done correctly. The University takes no responsibility for delivery of e-mails to non-University accounts.
You should note that failure to check your e-mail or failure to receive e-mail due to being over quota or due to non-delivery of an e-mail forwarded to a non-University e-mail account would not be accepted as a ground for appeal (for further information on appeals procedures, please refer to http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix5x17.hti).
TurnitinUK
TurnitinUK is an online service which compares student assignments with online sources including web pages, databases of reference material, and content previously submitted by other users across the UK. The software makes no decision as to whether plagiarism has occurred; it is simply a tool which highlights sections of text that have been found in other sources thereby helping academic staff decide whether plagiarism has occurred.
As of Academic Year 2011/12, TurnitinUK will be accessed directly through MyAberdeen. Advice about avoiding plagiarism, the University’s Definition of Plagiarism, a Checklist for Students, Referencing and Citing guidance, and instructions for TurnitinUK, can be found in the following area of the Student Learning Service website www.abdn.ac.uk/sls/plagiarism/.
Feedback Framework
Feedback on assessment:
The University recognises that the provision of timely and appropriate feedback on assessment plays a key part in students learning and teaching. The guiding principles for the provision of feedback within the University are detailed in the Institutional Framework for the Provision of Feedback on Assessment available at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix7x8.pdf
Enhancing Feedback:
The University recognises both the importance of providing timely and appropriate feedback on assessments to students, and of enabling students to voice views on their learning experience through channels such as Student Course Evaluation Forms and Class Representatives. FAQs, guidance and resources about feedback can be found on the University’s ‘Enhancing Feedback’ website at: www.abdn.ac.uk/clt/feedback
Appeals and Complaints
The University’s appeals and complaints procedures provide students with a framework through which to formalise their concerns about aspects of their academic experience or to complain when they feel that standards of non-academic service have fallen short of that which they expected.
The process has been designed to make the appeals and complaints process as accessible and simple as possible and to provide a robust, fair mechanism through which to ensure that all appeals and complaints are considered in the appropriate way at the appropriate level.
A major feature of the process is the emphasis it places on early or informal resolution. All students should note that there is an expectation that they will take responsibility for seeking resolution of their academic or non-academic concerns by raising and discussing them at the earliest possible stage with the relevant individuals in an academic School or administrative Service.
Further details of the processes for making an appeal or complaint, including where to find further help and support in the process, is given at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/appeals
Transcripts at Graduation
It is anticipated that students who commenced their studies in, or after, 2009/10, will receive a more detailed transcript of their studies on graduation. The increased details will include a record of all examination results attained. For students graduating in 2012/13 transcripts will show details of all CAS marks awarded, including marks which are fails. Where a resit has been required as a result of medical circumstances or other good cause (MC/GC) this will not be shown, but all other circumstances (i.e. No Paper ‘NP’) will be included.
My Aberdeen (the University of Aberdeen’s Virtual Learning Environment)
MyAberdeen is the University of Aberdeen’s Virtual Learning Environment. This is where you will find learning materials and resources associated with the courses you are studying.
MyAberdeen also provides direct access to TurnitinUK, the originality checking service, through which you may be asked to submit completed assignments.
You can log in to MyAberdeen by going to www.abdn.ac.uk/myaberdeen and entering your University username and password (which you use to access the University network).
Further information on MyAberdeen including Quick Guides and video tutorials, along with information about TurnitinUK, can be found at: www.abdn.ac.uk/students/myaberdeen.php
Aberdeen Graduate Attributes
Graduate Attributes are a wide-ranging set of qualities which students will develop during their time at Aberdeen in preparation for employment, further study and citizenship.
There are four main areas of the Graduate Attributes:
• Academic excellence
• Critical thinking and communication
• Learning and personal development
• Active citizenship
Students have many opportunities to develop and achieve these attributes. These include learning experiences on credit-bearing courses and co-curricular activities such as work placements, study abroad and volunteering. In accordance with the University’s commitment to Equality and Diversity, students can request support with any aspect of the Graduate Attributes framework.
The ACHIEVE website offers resources that enable students to assess and reflect upon their present skills and development needs. The website also contains resources to help students to improve their skills and links to a range of university services such as the Careers Service and the Student Learning Service. Students can access ACHIEVE from their MyAberdeen site in the ‘My Organisations’ section. More information about Aberdeen Graduate Attributes and ACHIEVE can be found at www.abdn.ac.uk/graduateattributes.
The Co-curriculum
The co-curriculum enhances a student’s employability and provides opportunities to develop and achieve Aberdeen Graduate Attributes. Co-curricular activities complement a student’s degree programme and include: work placements, study abroad, enterprise and entrepreneurship activities, the BP Student Tutoring Scheme, career mentoring and the STAR (Students Taking Active Roles) Award initiative. Below are examples of credit-bearing co-curricular activities. It is anticipated that these types of activity will be included on an enhanced transcript for students graduating in, or after, 2012/13
ERASMUS is an exchange programme funded by the European Commission which enables students to study or work in another European country as part of their degree programme. Eligible students will receive a grant to help with extra costs while abroad and a number of our partner institutions teach through English. For more information, visit www.abdn.ac.uk/erasmus/. The University also has opportunities for students to study in a non-European country as part of their degree through the International Exchange Programme. International partners include universities and colleges in North America, Hong Kong and Japan (www.abdn.ac.uk/undergraduate/international-exchange.php). The University aims to ensure full academic recognition for study periods abroad, therefore the credits gained from study abroad will count towards the Aberdeen degree programme for students participating in both ERASMUS and the International Exchange Programme.
Work placements can also form an integral part of a degree programme and attract academic credit. Placements are available locally, nationally and internationally, lasting from a few weeks to a full year and are generally paid. Visit the Careers Service website for further placement information and to find available work placements.
Further information about the co-curriculum is available at: www.abdn.ac.uk/careers
Aberdeen Graduate Attributes
Graduate Attributes are a wide-ranging set of qualities which students develop during their time at Aberdeen in preparation for employment, further study and citizenship.
There are four main areas of the Graduate Attributes:
•Academic excellence
•Critical thinking and communication
•Learning and personal development
•Active citizenship
Students have many opportunities to develop and achieve these attributes. These include learning experiences on credit-bearing courses and co-curricular activities such as work placements, study abroad and volunteering. In accordance with the University’s commitment to Equality and Diversity, students can request support with any aspect of the Graduate Attributes framework.
The ACHIEVE website offers resources that enable students to assess and reflect upon their present skills and development needs. The WebCT site also contains resources to help students to improve their skills and links to a range of university services such as the Careers Service and the Student Learning Service. Students can access ACHIEVE in their WebCT site list of courses.
Personal Developmental Planning
Level 1 and 2 students are encouraged to develop a Personal Development Plan (PDP) to help them learn more effectively, make the most of their University time and plan for their future. Further details on PDP can be accessed from the School website at www.abdn.ac.uk/sms - click on "Undergraduate Teaching".
School of Medical Sciences - Guide to Citing and Referencing
This guide should be used to assist you when completing any work for disciplines in the School of Medical Sciences. All work should include citations at appropriate places in the text, with a complete reference list at the end of the assignment. If diagrams/ graphs/ tables are copied or adapted from other publications/ websites, the sources must also be cited in the legend for that item, and included in your reference list.
Good citing and referencing not only improves the quality of your work, but it gives credit to the authors of original work, and makes it less likely that you can be accused of plagiarism. Further guidance on writing and plagiarism may be found at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/writing/ . When you submit work for marking, you are declaring that YOU are the author, that you have not copied it or plagiarised any material from other sources, AND that all sources of information have been acknowledged in your text. Students may be penalised by the University if found guilty of plagiarism.
Students are warned to be careful if using websites as sources of information. These may be inaccurate and are often not peer-reviewed. You are strongly encouraged to use advanced textbooks, peer-reviewed papers or reviews as the sources of your information in your work. Students are also advised to avoid quoting chunks of text in their work. Just because you put quotation marks around some text does not mean that you have not plagiarised it. Try and explain ideas and concepts in your own words.
The referencing style used here is Harvard, similar to that recommended by the University Library (see their factsheet for further information on referencing). Students must use this style of citing and referencing for all work. Other styles are not acceptable. Marks may be deducted if students do not cite or reference properly (see specific marking schemes for details).
Citing references within the text
You must provide citations in the text at the appropriate places by putting the author’s surname and year of publication in round brackets immediately after the relevant text (author, date method).
Author, date method
Jones et al. (1999) has argued that….
Studies have produced conflicting results…..(Bloggs, 2000; MacDuff et al., 1993)
Smith stated (1990)…..and then later work confirmed this (2003)…..
Bloggs (2001) investigated…..
One author (Bloggs, 2000)
Two authors (Smith & Jones, 1982)
Three or more authors (Chesterfield et al., 1995)
If the same author(s) wrote two or more papers in the same year Thwaites et al. stated (1990a)…..and then provided further evidence (1990b)…..
N.B. “et al.” should be in italics, as should all other Latin words/phrases in your text (e.g. in vitro). There is also a full stop after “et al.”, since it is an abbreviation of “et alia” (“and others”).
Listing your references at the end of your work
Your list of references must place the surnames of the first authors in alphabetical order. List all authors of a piece of work unless there are a large number.
Format of references at the end of your work
Book - whole Rang, H.P., Dale, M.M., Ritter, J.M. & Flower, R.J. (2007) Pharmacology. 6th Ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Book – article or chapter within Johnson, D. & Smart, J.S. (1983) Advanced techniques in measuring athletic performance. In: S. Roberts, ed., Sports Science in the Laboratory. London: Macmillan, pp. 3-28.
Journal – article within Furchgott, R.F., Zawadzki, J.V. (1980) The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 288(5789), 373-6.
Website Department for Education and Employment (2000). Student loans: guidance on terms and conditions from April 2000. [online]. Available from: http://www.dfee.gov.uk/loan2000/index.html [Accessed 23rd March 2006]
