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Epithelial transport is essential for the maintenance and propagation of life. In this course you will explore the features of transporting epithelial cells which make them uniquely suited for mediating the controlled, directional passage of ions, nutrients and water across the walls of the alimentary, renal, respiratory and reproductive systems. The importance of these processes to the normal physiological function of these organ systems is reflected by the pathophysiological symptoms which manifest themselves when transport regulation breaks down. For example, infectious diarrhoea occurs as a result of excessive intestinal fluid secretion and accounts for more than five million child deaths per year in developing countries. At the other extreme, the most common genetic disease of the developed world, cystic fibrosis, is caused by a failure of epithelial tissues to secrete any fluid at all resulting in malnutrition, infertility and ultimately, respiratory failure and death. The course will initially examine the common features of transporting epithelial cells and the technologies available for their study. Following on from this, the role of epithelial cells in the kidney, gastrointestinal tract, reproductive tract and respiratory system will be examined in detail. Emphasis is placed on understanding the cellular transport mechanisms required for the normal physiological function of these systems in health. Where insight into these processes has been enhanced by the study of disease models, these will be highlighted.
Course Co-ordinator: Dr G.T.A. McEwan (ext. 7403) g.t.a.mcewan@abdn.ac.uk
1.To describe the general features of transporting epithelial cells.
2.To relate structure to function at molecular, cellular, tissue and organ system levels.
3.To describe the mechanisms underlying the regulated, directional transport of ions, nutrients and water across vertebrate epithelia.
4.To compare and contrast epithelial transport mechanisms which subserve normal physiological function of the renal, alimentary, reproductive and respiratory systems and to appreciate the potential consequences of pathophysiological malfunction.
5.To gain an appreciation of the available technologies utilised for the study of epithelial transport processes and to provide practical experience of current experimental methods for studying transepithelial ion and water transport.
1. Introduction to transporting epithelia (GTAM)
This lecture will provide an introduction to the course and will provide an appreciation of the relevance of studying epithelial transport within the context of contemporary biomedical research. The general features of transporting epithelia will be reviewed and key aspects of the course will be sign-posted.
2. Hans Ussing and the sodium transport model (KRP)
Highly selective or "tight" epithelia such as that found in the colon and kidney play an important role in the maintenance of body water and salt balance. The mechanism by which sodium ions cross these tissues is central to their homeostatic function. This mechanism is described by a remarkably simple model which treats the outward (apical) epithelial membrane as being selectively permeable to sodium ions and the inward (basolateral) epithelial membrane as selectively permeable to potassium ions but also containing a sodium pump. The ramifications of this model will be discussed and the lecture will also act as an introduction to the wet practical.
3. Membrane trafficking and epithelial polarity (GTAM)
All transporting epithelia are polarised with a distinct apical and basolateral membrane. The maintenance of this polarity and the regulated sorting of transport proteins through the biosynthetic pathway to selected specific membrane domains will be considered. Finally, the strategy of regulated recruitment as a means of controlling epithelial transport mechanisms will be investigated.
4. Epithelial tight junctions (GTAM)
The epithelial tight junctional complex serves two functions - (a) provision of a selective barrier to the paracellular transport pathway and (b) maintenance of epithelial polarity by restricting lateral diffusion of membrane proteins between apical and basolateral domains. The components of junctional complexes will be considered along with the properties which permit the junctions to fulfill their essential role in maintaining epithelial integrity.
5. Renal sodium chloride transport (DAS)
The segmental and spatial arrangement of the renal nephron is central to its action as the functional unit of the kidney. This lecture will examine how sodium and chloride transport mechanisms vary in different parts of the nephron and will pay particular attention to the way these segmental differences combine to give the kidney the capacity to maintain salt and water balance in the body.
6. Acid/base transport (GTAM)
All cells require to regulate their intracellular pH. This lecture will consider the various acid/base transport mechanisms which have been identified in plasma membranes. As an example of how these transport proteins contribute to epithelial transport processes, the mechanisms involved in acidification of urine at the levels of proximal and distal tubule will be considered in detail.
7. Renal water transport (DAS)
This lecture compliments lecture 5 by examining the various water channels present in the kidney nephron and discussing the ways they act in order to allow the kidney to maintain body water balance. It will also provide an up to date account of the molecular structure of these channels and their family relation to water channels found in other tissues of the body.
8. Gastric acid secretion (GTAM)
During feeding, the epithelial lining of the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid. This results in the contents of the gastric lumen falling to below pH 2, sterilising ingested materials and initiating protein digestion. The mechanism adopted to overcome the 10 million fold proton gradient required for the achievement of this process will be examined in detail. The various factors involved in the regulation of gastric acid secretion will be considered. Finally, the relationship between gastric acid secretion, Helicobacter pylori and the formation of gastric ulcers will be explored.
9. Intestinal sodium chloride transport (GTAM)
The small intestine is a heterogeneous structure consisting of villi and crypts. The epithelia covering these structures perform distinct tasks. The villus enterocytes are responsible for absorption of sodium chloride and water whereas the cells lining the crypt secrete sodium chloride and water. This creates a delicate, well regulated balance between absorption and secretion. The cellular transport mechanisms adopted by villus and crypt cells will be investigated from both a physiological and pathophysiological view point. The latter will involve brief consideration of the mechanisms underlying secretory diarrhoea and cystic fibrosis.
10. Intestinal sugar transport (GTAM)
The bulk of ingested carbohydrate is transported across the small intestine in the form of glucose. It has been appreciated for almost forty years that glucose crosses the intestinal epithelium coupled to sodium, thereby contributing to transepithelial water absorption. Despite very significant technological advances, the original description of the mechanism of intestinal glucose transport remains essentially unchanged. The historical background to our current understanding of the glucose absorption model will be considered. Finally, glucose transport will be contrasted with that of fructose.
11. Intestinal amino acid transport (GTAM)
Amino acids are nutrients that must be effectively absorbed by the intestines. As a chemical class they are very varied with distinct properties derived from their different molecular structures. The body requires different proportions of amino acids at different times, and some amino acids may be synthesised de novo by the body whilst others are essential and can only be supplied from food intake. It is not surprising, therefore, that a wide range of transporters has evolved to cope with intestinal absorption of amino-acids. The different classes of transporter found in intestinal tissue will be described and indication given as to how their properties can allow the intestines to provide the body with sufficient amino acids for its needs.
12. Intestinal fatty acid transport (GTAM)
Fatty acids play an important role in body metabolism and hence form an important element of the diet. Their absorption from the gut is complicated by the fact that they are hydrophobic and lipophilic molecules and consequently they are handled by very different mechanisms than those associated with hydrophilic nutrients such as glucose and amino acids. This lecture will review the mechanisms associated with fatty acid absorption paying particular attention to essential fatty acids and their important long chain polyunsaturated derivatives such as arachidonic acid.
13. Role of epithelium in reproduction (PAF)
Epithelial cells provide a number of essential functions in both male and female reproductive tracts. These include nutrient provision, ion and fluid secretion, structural support, ciliary transport, environmental compartmentalisation and receptor activity. Each of these functions will be described in detail.
14. Epithelial transport of essential metals (DAS)
Essential metal ions (eg iron, zinc, copper, etc) play a fundamental role in many biological processes, such as signalling, homeostasis and catalysis. However, while deficiency in any of these metals can be highly detrimental to health, they are also highly toxic to cells and their transport must be tightly controlled. This lecture will consider the problems associated with the transport of metal ions and will review the mechanisms associated with metal transport across mammalian small intestine.
15. Role of epithelium in respiration (GTAM)
The structure of the various epithelial cell types which line the airways will be described in relation to their specific functions within the respiratory system. Consideration will be given to the role of respiratory epithelia in airway disease.
The course contains three practical elements which are all inter-related:
1. A computer simulation exercise (The Electric Frog) which will introduce the concept of the voltage clamp technique as applied to the study of ion transport across intact epithelia (this will already have been covered during the previous lecture). The simulation also covers the principles involved in using radioisotopes to investigate transepithelial ion fluxes. This exercise prepares you for the major practical component of the course (see (3) below).
2. An exercise which will outline the data analysis and presentation procedures required for the wet laboratory practical report (see (3) below). This session will provide instruction in the use of MS Excel spreadsheet software and GraphPad Prism statistical/graphical software.
3. A full day (8 hour) laboratory exercise investigating the transport of sodium across the isolated frog skin. The experimental approach adopted for this practical is essentially that demonstrated by the Electric Frog simulation (see (1) above). As this is very much a "wet" practical, it is essential that you should wear appropriate protective clothing at all times. You must also keep an accurate protocol of all experiments performed. Following the practical, you will each prepare an individual report which should be word processed in the form of a short scientific paper (the appropriate style and methods of data handling will have been outlined during the preceding exercise (see (2) above). This report will form an important component of the continuous assessment.
Students with special educational needs
The practical work required in this course might present difficulties to students with special educational needs. For such students, alternative arrangements will be made. Any student with special needs should make these known to the Course Co-ordinator when registering for the class, and should then also discuss their needs with the School Disabilities Co-ordinator, to ensure that they have the best possible outcome.
Powerpoint Presentations
Groups of three students will be allocated a short scientific paper related to epithelial physiology. Each group of students will be required to present their paper to the assembled class using MS PowerPoint presentation software. Each presentation will be of ten minutes duration and will be followed by a five minute discussion period. Papers will be selected at random and instruction will be provided on the basic construction of a PowerPoint presentation. Individual presentations will be assessed for delivery and content and this will contribute towards the continuous assessment.
Each presentation should:
• Set the background to the work described in the paper
• Identify the aims of the paper
• Outline the methodological approach adopted
• Describe the main results presented
• Discuss the physiological relevance of the main results
• Assess whether the aims of the paper have been achieved
Proton-coupled intestinal transport processes (GTAM)
This research seminar will explore the research background to the discovery and acceptance of proton-coupled nutrient transport in mammalian small intenstine.
The general textbook listed below provides a lot of information relevant to this course. In addition, you will be provided with a detailed handout for each lecture. Where appropriate, you will also be directed to specific reading material for individual topics.
Boron, W.F & Boulpaep, E.L, Medical Physiology, Saunders 2004
The following chapters are relevant to the course. Coverage tends to go beyond the level of detail required. You should, therefore, be selective in your reading. There may also be further relevant material not covered in the listed chapters. You should use the index to identify such relevant information.
Chapter 2: Functional organisation of the cell pp9-49
Chapter 3: Physiology of membranes pp50-86
Chapter 34: Transport of sodium and chloride pp774-789
Chapter 38: Transport of acids and bases pp845-860
Chapter 41: Gastric Function pp891-907
Chapter 43: Intestinal fluid and electrolyte movement pp931-946
Chapter 44: Nutrient digestion and absorption pp947-974
The University has strict regulations on plagiarism. If you are unsure about what constitutes plagiarism read the University guide on plagiarism at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/writing
Copying or plagiarising another persons work, either from other students or published material in books or papers and submitted as your own for assessment is considered a form of cheating. This is considered by the University to be a serious offence and will be penalised according to the extent involved and whether it is decided there was an attempt at deliberate deception, or whether bad practice was involved. If you do use information or ideas obtained from textbooks or other published material you must give a precise reference to the source both at the appropriate point in your narrative and in a list of references at the end of your work. Direct quotations from published material should be indicated by quotation marks and referenced in the text as above.
There will be a 30% continuous assessment component to this module based upon the laboratory report (20%) and on the seminar presentation (10%).
There will be a written 90 minute examination at the end of the course. It will consist of a choice of two questions selected from a total of four. The paper will be in two sections (A and B), one question should be answered from each section. Each answer will contribute 35% to the total assessment for the course.
Students are expected to attend all lectures, laboratory classes, and tutorials, and to complete all class exercises by stated deadlines. The minimum acceptable performance is attendance at 75% of the practical classes, and presentation of all set course work, written and oral.
The degree examination is held in May/June, with the re-sit examination in August.
Dr Gordon McEwan
Dr Derek Scott (DAS), School of Medical Sciences Dr Kenneth Page (KRP), School of Medical Sciences Dr Paul Fowler (PAF), School of Medicine
If students have difficulties with any part of the course that they cannot cope with alone they should notify someone immediately. If the problem relates to the subject matter you may be best advised to contact the member of staff who is teaching that part of the course. Students with registered disabilities should contact either the IMS based Departmental Office (Miss Lyndsay McEwan l.mcewan@abdn.ac.uk) or the Old Aberdeen office associated with the teaching laboratories (Mrs S.Jones s.jones@abdn.ac.uk ) to ensure that the appropriate facilities have been made available. Otherwise, you are strongly encouraged to contact any of the following as you see appropriate:
Course student representatives.
Course Co-ordinator (Dr Gordon McEwan).
Convenor of the SMS (BMS) Student-Staff Liaison Committee (Dr Gordon McEwan).
Adviser of Studies.
School Disabilities Co-ordinator (Dr Derryck Shewan).
Staff are based at Foresterhill (IMS) and we strongly encourage that you use email or telephone the SMS office as a means of establishing contact. You may be wasting your time to travel to Foresterhill only to find staff unavailable.
Support Available to Students
The University is keen to help you successfully complete your studies. If at any time you feel you need assistance, there is a range of support services available to help you. These include support to assist with unexpected and/or exceptional financial difficulty, support for disabled students and academic learning support through the Student Learning Service. Further details about all these services area available at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/studenthelpguide/.
We value students’ opinions in regard to enhancing the quality of teaching and its delivery; therefore in conjunction with the Students’ Association we support the operation of a Class Representative system.
The students within each course, year, or programme elect representatives by the end of the fourth week of teaching within each half-session. In this school we operate a system of course representatives. Any student registered within a course that wishes to represent a given group of students can stand for election as a class representative. You will be informed when the elections for class representative will take place.
What will it involve?
It will involve speaking to your fellow students about the course you represent. This can include any comments that they may have. You will attend a Staff-Student Liaison Committee and you should represent the views and concerns of the students within this meeting. As a representative you will also be able to contribute to the agenda. You will then feedback to the students after this meeting with any actions that are being taken.
Training
Training for class representatives will be run by the Students Association. Training will take place in the fourth or fifth week of teaching each half-session. For more information about the Class representative system visit www.ausa.org.uk or email the VP Education & Employability vped@abdn.ac.uk. Class representatives are also eligible to undertake the STAR (Students Taking Active Roles) Award, further information about the co-curricular award is available at: www.abdn.ac.uk/careers.
Monitoring Students' Progress
The University operates a system for monitoring students' progress to identify students who may be experiencing difficulties in a particular course and who may be at risk of losing their class certificate. If the Course Co-ordinator has concerns about your attendance and/or performance, the Registry will be informed. The Registry will then write to you (by e-mail in term-time) to ask you to contact their office in the first instance. Depending on your reason for absence the Registry will either deal directly with your case or will refer you to your Adviser of Studies or a relevant support service. This system is operated to provide support for students who may be experiencing difficulties with their studies. Students are required to attend such meetings with their Adviser of Studies in accordance with General Regulation 8.
Set criteria are used to determine when a student should be reported in the monitoring system. You will be asked to meet your Adviser if any of the following criteria apply for this course:-
either (i) if you are absent for a continuous period of two weeks or 25% of the course (whichever is less) without good cause being reported;
or (ii) if you are absent from two small group teaching sessions e.g. (laboratory/tutorial classes) without good cause;
or (iii) if you fail to submit a piece of summative or a substantial piece of formative in-course assessment by the stated deadline
If you fail to respond within the prescribed timescale (as set out in the e-mail or letter) you will be deemed to have withdrawn from the course concerned and will accordingly be ineligible to take the end of course assessment or to enter for the resit. The Registry will write to you (by e-mail in term-time) to inform you of this decision. If you wish consideration to be given to reinstating you in the course you will be required to meet the Convener of the Students' Progress Committee.
Absence from Classes on Medical Grounds
Candidates who wish to establish that their academic performance has been adversely affected by their health are required to secure medical certificates relating to the relevant periods of ill health (see General Regulation 17.3).
The University’s policy on requiring certification for absence on medical grounds or other good cause can be accessed at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix7x5.pdf
You are strongly advised to make yourself fully aware of your responsibilities if you are absent due to illness or other good cause. In particular, you are asked to note that self-certification of absence for periods of absence up to and including eleven weekdays is permissible. However, where absence has prevented attendance at an examination or where it may have affected your performance in an element of assessment or where you have been unable to attend a specified teaching session, you are strongly advised to provide medical certification (see section 3 of the Policy on Certification of Absence for Medical Reasons or Other Good Cause).
Students who attend and complete the work required for a course are considered to have been awarded a ‘Class Certificate’. Being in possession of a valid Class Certificate for a course entitles a student to sit degree examinations for that course. From 2010/11 class certificates will be valid for two years and permit a total of three attempts at the required assessment within that two year period i.e. the first attempt plus up to two resits.
You will receive a University e-mail account when you register with the University Computing Centre. The University will normally use e-mail to communicate with you during term-time. These e-mails will be sent to your University e-mail account, which you can access using Eudora or SquirrelMail.
It is your responsibility to check your e-mail on a regular (at least weekly) basis and to tidy the contents of your e-mail inbox to ensure that it does not go over quota (see http://www.abdn.ac.uk/diss/email/mailquota.hti for guidance on managing your e-mail quota). It is recommended that you use your University e-mail account to read and respond to University communications. If you already have a non-University e-mail account that you use for personal correspondence, it is possible to set up automatic forwarding of messages from your University e-mail account to your personal e-mail address (see http://www.abdn.ac.uk/local/mail.forward/) but, should you do so, it is your responsibility to ensure that this is done correctly. The University takes no responsibility for delivery of e-mails to non-University accounts.
You should note that failure to check your e-mail or failure to receive e-mail due to being over quota or due to non-delivery of an e-mail forwarded to a non-University e-mail account would not be accepted as a ground for appeal (for further information on appeals procedures, please refer to http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix5x17.hti).
TurnitinUK
TurnitinUK is an online service which compares student assignments with online sources including web pages, databases of reference material, and content previously submitted by other users across the UK. The software makes no decision as to whether plagiarism has occurred; it is simply a tool which highlights sections of text that have been found in other sources thereby helping academic staff decide whether plagiarism has occurred.
As of Academic Year 2011/12, TurnitinUK will be accessed directly through MyAberdeen. Advice about avoiding plagiarism, the University’s Definition of Plagiarism, a Checklist for Students, Referencing and Citing guidance, and instructions for TurnitinUK, can be found in the following area of the Student Learning Service website www.abdn.ac.uk/sls/plagiarism/.
Feedback Framework
Feedback on assessment:
The University recognises that the provision of timely and appropriate feedback on assessment plays a key part in students learning and teaching. The guiding principles for the provision of feedback within the University are detailed in the Institutional Framework for the Provision of Feedback on Assessment available at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/quality/appendix7x8.pdf
Enhancing Feedback:
The University recognises both the importance of providing timely and appropriate feedback on assessments to students, and of enabling students to voice views on their learning experience through channels such as Student Course Evaluation Forms and Class Representatives. FAQs, guidance and resources about feedback can be found on the University’s ‘Enhancing Feedback’ website at: www.abdn.ac.uk/clt/feedback
Appeals and Complaints
The University’s appeals and complaints procedures provide students with a framework through which to formalise their concerns about aspects of their academic experience or to complain when they feel that standards of non-academic service have fallen short of that which they expected.
The process has been designed to make the appeals and complaints process as accessible and simple as possible and to provide a robust, fair mechanism through which to ensure that all appeals and complaints are considered in the appropriate way at the appropriate level.
A major feature of the process is the emphasis it places on early or informal resolution. All students should note that there is an expectation that they will take responsibility for seeking resolution of their academic or non-academic concerns by raising and discussing them at the earliest possible stage with the relevant individuals in an academic School or administrative Service.
Further details of the processes for making an appeal or complaint, including where to find further help and support in the process, is given at:
www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/appeals
Transcripts at Graduation
It is anticipated that students who commenced their studies in, or after, 2009/10, will receive a more detailed transcript of their studies on graduation. The increased details will include a record of all examination results attained. For students graduating in 2012/13 transcripts will show details of all CAS marks awarded, including marks which are fails. Where a resit has been required as a result of medical circumstances or other good cause (MC/GC) this will not be shown, but all other circumstances (i.e. No Paper ‘NP’) will be included.
My Aberdeen (the University of Aberdeen’s Virtual Learning Environment)
MyAberdeen replaces WebCT as students’ virtual learning environment. This is where you will find learning materials and resources associated with the courses you are studying.
MyAberdeen also provides direct access to TurnitinUK, the online originality checking service, through which you may be asked to submit completed assignments.
You can log in to MyAberdeen by going to www.abdn.ac.uk/myaberdeen and entering your University username and password (which you use to access the University network).
Further information on MyAberdeen including Quick Guides and video tutorials, along with information about TurnitinUK, can be found at: www.abdn.ac.uk/students/myaberdeen.php.
Information about academic writing and how to avoid plagiarism can be found at www.abdn.ac.uk/sls/plagiarism.
Aberdeen Graduate Attributes
Graduate Attributes are a wide-ranging set of qualities which students will develop during their time at Aberdeen in preparation for employment, further study and citizenship.
There are four main areas of the Graduate Attributes:
• Academic excellence
• Critical thinking and communication
• Learning and personal development
• Active citizenship
Students have many opportunities to develop and achieve these attributes. These include learning experiences on credit-bearing courses and co-curricular activities such as work placements, study abroad and volunteering. In accordance with the University’s commitment to Equality and Diversity, students can request support with any aspect of the Graduate Attributes framework.
The ACHIEVE website offers resources that enable students to assess and reflect upon their present skills and development needs. The website also contains resources to help students to improve their skills and links to a range of university services such as the Careers Service and the Student Learning Service. Students can access ACHIEVE from their MyAberdeen site in the ‘My Organisations’ section. More information about Aberdeen Graduate Attributes and ACHIEVE can be found at www.abdn.ac.uk/graduateattributes.
The Co-curriculum
The co-curriculum enhances a student’s employability and provides opportunities to develop and achieve Aberdeen Graduate Attributes. Co-curricular activities complement a student’s degree programme and include: work placements, study abroad, enterprise and entrepreneurship activities, the BP Student Tutoring Scheme, career mentoring and the STAR (Students Taking Active Roles) Award initiative. Below are examples of credit-bearing co-curricular activities. It is anticipated that these types of activity will be included on an enhanced transcript for students graduating in, or after, 2012/13
ERASMUS is an exchange programme funded by the European Commission which enables students to study or work in another European country as part of their degree programme. Eligible students will receive a grant to help with extra costs while abroad and a number of our partner institutions teach through English. For more information, visit www.abdn.ac.uk/erasmus/. The University also has opportunities for students to study in a non-European country as part of their degree through the International Exchange Programme. International partners include universities and colleges in North America, Hong Kong and Japan (www.abdn.ac.uk/undergraduate/international-exchange.php). The University aims to ensure full academic recognition for study periods abroad, therefore the credits gained from study abroad will count towards the Aberdeen degree programme for students participating in both ERASMUS and the International Exchange Programme.
Work placements can also form an integral part of a degree programme and attract academic credit. Placements are available locally, nationally and internationally, lasting from a few weeks to a full year and are generally paid. Visit the Careers Service website for further placement information and to find available work placements.
Further information about the co-curriculum is available at: www.abdn.ac.uk/careers
School of Medical Sciences - Guide to Citing and Referencing
This guide should be used to assist you when completing any work for disciplines in the School of Medical Sciences. All work should include citations at appropriate places in the text, with a complete reference list at the end of the assignment. If diagrams/ graphs/ tables are copied or adapted from other publications/ websites, the sources must also be cited in the legend for that item, and included in your reference list.
Good citing and referencing not only improves the quality of your work, but it gives credit to the authors of original work, and makes it less likely that you can be accused of plagiarism. Further guidance on writing and plagiarism may be found at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/writing/ . When you submit work for marking, you are declaring that YOU are the author, that you have not copied it or plagiarised any material from other sources, AND that all sources of information have been acknowledged in your text. Students may be penalised by the University if found guilty of plagiarism.
Students are warned to be careful if using websites as sources of information. These may be inaccurate and are often not peer-reviewed. You are strongly encouraged to use advanced textbooks, peer-reviewed papers or reviews as the sources of your information in your work. Students are also advised to avoid quoting chunks of text in their work. Just because you put quotation marks around some text does not mean that you have not plagiarised it. Try and explain ideas and concepts in your own words.
The referencing style used here is Harvard, similar to that recommended by the University Library (see their factsheet for further information on referencing). Students must use this style of citing and referencing for all work. Other styles are not acceptable. Marks may be deducted if students do not cite or reference properly (see specific marking schemes for details).
Citing references within the text
You must provide citations in the text at the appropriate places by putting the author’s surname and year of publication in round brackets immediately after the relevant text (author, date method).
Author, date method
Jones et al. (1999) has argued that….
Studies have produced conflicting results…..(Bloggs, 2000; MacDuff et al., 1993)
Smith stated (1990)…..and then later work confirmed this (2003)…..
Bloggs (2001) investigated…..
One author (Bloggs, 2000)
Two authors (Smith & Jones, 1982)
Three or more authors (Chesterfield et al., 1995)
If the same author(s) wrote two or more papers in the same year Thwaites et al. stated (1990a)…..and then provided further evidence (1990b)…..
N.B. “et al.” should be in italics, as should all other Latin words/phrases in your text (e.g. in vitro). There is also a full stop after “et al.”, since it is an abbreviation of “et alia” (“and others”).
Listing your references at the end of your work
Your list of references must place the surnames of the first authors in alphabetical order. List all authors of a piece of work unless there are a large number.
Format of references at the end of your work
Book - whole Rang, H.P., Dale, M.M., Ritter, J.M. & Flower, R.J. (2007) Pharmacology. 6th Ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Book – article or chapter within Johnson, D. & Smart, J.S. (1983) Advanced techniques in measuring athletic performance. In: S. Roberts, ed., Sports Science in the Laboratory. London: Macmillan, pp. 3-28.
Journal – article within Furchgott, R.F., Zawadzki, J.V. (1980) The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 288(5789), 373-6.
Website Department for Education and Employment (2000). Student loans: guidance on terms and conditions from April 2000. [online]. Available from: http://www.dfee.gov.uk/loan2000/index.html [Accessed 23rd March 2006]
