Dr Christoph WITZENRATH The University of Aberdeen School of Divinity, History & Philosophy Honorary Research Fellow pref c.witzenrath@abdn.ac.uk

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Biography

Education

1998-2005 PhD, King's College, University of London, UK.
Title: 'Institutional Culture and the Government of Siberia. Empire, Rebellion, and
Cossacks, 1598-1725'.
Supervisor: Prof. Robert I. Frost.

1993-98 MA in History, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany (Courses
included: history (major), political sciences, economics).
Thesis: 'Local Administration and the Archbishop of Tobolsk and Siberia'.

1990-92 BA (equivalent) in political science (major), Eastern European history and economics
at Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg i. Brsg., Germany.

Employment

2011 Gilder Lehrman visiting scholar, Yale University.

2010-11 Shklar research fellow, Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.
Contributing lecturer: World History III, Harvard Extension School.

2009-13 Research Fellow, University of Aberdeen.

2007-09 Leverhulme Early Career Fellow, University of Aberdeen, UK
Project: 'Power, Distance and Redeeming Captives in Muscovy'.
Twice course coordinator:
Soviet Russia 1917-1991
Contributing lecturer:
Europe in the Twentieth Century
Times of Trouble: Russia 1533-2005
World War II

2003-06 Lecturer (adjunct) at Humboldt University, Berlin.
Undergraduate courses designed, coordinated, taught, marked and exams assigned:
Northeastern Europe and the Military Revolution. The Northern Wars 1558- 1721.
Poland and Russia
The Russian Empire and its Regions.
Rus' (the Mongol Empire, Kiev, Poland-Lithuania, Muscovy).

1995-96 Postgraduate lecturer, Humboldt University, Berlin:
Interwar Nationality Policy (Ukraine, Czechoslovak Republic).

Skills

IT MS Office: Word, PowerPoint, Excel, Access, OneNote.
Bibliographic management: Endnote, RefWorks
Virtual learning environment: WebCT

Languages Fluent: German, English, Russian, French.
Reading: Latin, Ukrainian, Polish, Spanish.
Beginners: Turkish

Training Advanced WebCT; Learning and Teaching in Higher Education; Peer Observation

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Current Research

Power, Distance and Redeeming Captives in Seventeenth-century Muscovy

Recent research has demonstrated that early modern slavery was much more widespread than the traditional concentration on plantation slavery in the context of European colonial expansion would suggest. This project seeks to add to the growing literature a study of the neglected case of slavery and redemption on Muscovy's expanding frontier to the south and east. It will also shed light on the nature of Muscovite imperial power by expanding the research I conducted in my doctoral dissertation on the relationship between Siberian Cossacks and the tsarist government in Moscow. For Muscovy's expansion in the south depended crucially on perceptions of security of its agents in the steppe frontier area, which was raided on a daily basis by large and small nomad groups for captives to be sold in the Ottoman, Persian and Chinese Empires. The tsar's power had to overcome vast stretches of territory largely impenetrable to state power, since agriculture was imperilled by raids, fortification expensive and Cossack groups volatile. Moreover, redeeming the world's second-largest slave population after those originating in sub-Saharan Africa meant agency well beyond Muscovite claims of authority, on the Asian slave markets. The interrelated issues of power, distance and the redemption of slaves in the steppe have received little detailed attention from scholars. Despite long-running debates about the number of slaves originating in Eastern Europe and Siberia, and the existence of a substantial source base, research has been insignificant or inconclusive, and was long hindered by ideological considerations in Soviet Russia. This pioneer project focuses on the cultural legacy of redemption and captivity. Interlocutors and middlemen on the southern markets faced considerable obstacles in bringing slaves back to Moscow for redemption. Moscow reduced these perils by decreeing that governors tracked down fugitive slaves, a rather uncommon measure regarding the southern frontier's dearth of servicemen. For redemption payments,  the 1649 code of laws set up the first poll tax, further institutionalised by the only example of religious justification in the code. It obliged the tsar by linking biblical imagery to the most important legitimating attributes, piety and attention to 'wise advisors'. In numerous clerical and secular writings from 1620s Kiev to 1700s Siberia, the myth of the wise, redeeming and liberating tsar has stressed that Ivan the Terrible's conquest of Kazan' had set free tens of thousands of captives. The redemption of captives was attributed to the influence of the Orthodox Church, while Catholics, Uniates and Protestants were seen as unreliable. The use of Wisdom of God imagery allowed for multiple links within imperial culture, inviting those reared in the separate, but related traditions of the intercultural Wisdom cult and literature, preserved since antiquity in Ruthenian, Persian and Ottoman cultures, to ignore or downplay European agency. It tied a stress on justice and adherence to the law to the multiethnic empire. Since the wise tsar liberated captives and icons of Wisdom, it rallied troops and nomads 'in search of authority' (Khodarkovsky), forging a conquest movement from disunited roamers of the steppe who were interested in booty and increased trade. Some of the most important strands in the fabric of imperial culture were therefore open to claims of redemption, and it is the present study's aim to examine representations based on these and other notions applied by interlocutors and middlemen on the southern slave markets.

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Research Grants

2011                Habilitandenstipendium des Deutschen Historischen Instituts, Moskau
2010                Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, Eugene and Daymel Shklar Research Fellowship,
2009                British Association for Slavonic and Eastern European Studies: conf. allowance.
                        School of Divinity, History & Philosophy, Univ. of Aberdeen: conf. allowance. 
                        College of Arts and Social Sciences, Univ. of Aberdeen: conference allowance.
                        Principal's dowry: conference allowance.
2007-09           Leverhulme early career fellowship.
2006                Stanford University and University of California at Berkeley travel grant.
2006                Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft travel allowance.
1999                University of London travel grant.
1998-2001       King's College London research studentship award.

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Conference Organization

2009 June          International Conference 'Slavery, Ransom and Liberation in Russia and the Steppe
15-16                Area, 1500-2000'; 19 internat. Participants; funded: above. Don Ostrowski (Harvard) 
                        delivered the key note: 'Interconnectedness: Integrating Early Modern Russia into 
                        World History'.         

2009                 American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies (AAASS) annual conven-
                        tion, Boston, co-organizer, panel 'Religion and Representations in Muscovite Foreign 
                        Relations', chair: K. Friedrich, discussant: Don Ostrowski, Title: 'Wisdom and 
                        Redemption: Liberation and Identities in 16th-17th-c. Steppe Exchanges'.          

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Papers

2011       *American Historical Association, ann. conv., Boston, panel 'The Tensions of Religion and Empire: Early Modern Russia', chair V. Kivelson, Title: 'Wisdom and Redemption in the Multi-Faith Empire: Liberation and Slaving in 16th to 17th Centuries Muscovite Steppe Exchanges'.  

2010       *Early Slavists Seminar, Davies Center, Harvard University, Donald Ostrowski, Title: 'Captivity, Exodus and Muscovite Political Culture'.

2010       Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, Seminar in Ukrainian Studies, Title: 'Slavery, Redemption, and Politics in Seventeenth-Century Ukraine'.

2009       International Conference 'Slavery, Ransom and Liberation in Russia and the Steppe Area, 1500-2000', Aberdeen, Title: 'Redemption from Captivity in Muscovite Culture'.

2009       Durham, BASEES Study Group on Eighteenth-century Russia, Patrick O'Meara, panel 'Prisoners and Prisons', Title: 'Captivity, Slaving and Ransom in the Steppe Frontier'. 

2009       *Madrid, Casa de Velazquez, EURESCL (EU Framework Programme FP7) conference 'Esclavages en Méditerranée et en Europe continentale', Myriam Cottias, Title: 'Redemption, Fortification and Steppe Diplomacy – the Place of Muscovy in Eurasian Slaving'.

2009       *University of Bielefeld, Coll. S. Merl, Title: 'Redemption of Captives and Muscovite Culture'.

2009       *Bielefeld Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, int. sympos. 'Transnational Representations of Premodern Revolts', M. Griesse, Title: 'Rebellion and Communication in 17th-c. Siberia'.

2009       *ACREEH conference 'The Scottish Diaspora in Russia', Paul Dukes, Title: '"The Greatest Geopolitical   Transformation of the World of the Seventeenth Century was the explosive expansion of  Russian trade and settlement across Siberia" (J.E. Wills').

2008       *Aberdeen, Seminar for Cultural History, D. Smith, Title: "Literacy and Orality in the Eurasian Steppe Frontier. Imperial Culture and Space."     

2007       Aberdeen, Dept. of History Seminar, Title: "Imperial Culture and Redemption of Captives and Slaves in Russia, 1500s-1700s" (with ACREEH).

2007       *Moldova Institute, Leipzig, Kantemir-conference, Title: "Dmitrii Kantemir's Donations."

2007       Nijmegen, Radboud U, Conf.: "Sophia – Intercultural Bridglet", Title: "Alterity and Identity. Muscovite Imperial Culture in Siberia and the Muslim and Orthodox Traditions of Wisdom".

2008       International Conference 'Religion and Integration in Muscovite Russia', University of Kiel (Germany), L. Steindorff, Title: 'Sophia – Wisdom of God and Imperial Culture'.

2006       *Stanford University, seminar N. Kollmann, Title: 'Manipulating Subjects. Cossacks, Trade, and Changing Imperial Culture in the Baikal Area, 1696-1701'. Also given at *Berkeley.            

2006       *University of California at Berkeley, seminar I. Slezkine, Title: s. above.               

2006       Washington, DC, AAASS annual convention, panel "Commerce on the Periphery: The Nexus between State and Private Trade", chair P. Brown, Title: 'Institutional Culture and Long-distance Control in Seventeenth-century Siberia'.   

2005       Paris, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, doctoral seminar 'Towards Empire', A. Berelowitch, Title: 'Sofiia – Premudrost' Bozhiia i pravil sudnogo proizvodstva' ('Sofiia – Wisdom of God and Due Process. Tobolsk 1621-1625').    

2005       Cambridge, British Association for Slavonic and Eastern European Studies (BASEES) annual conference, panel 'Norm and Deviance', S. Smith, Title: 'Due Process. Krasnoiarsk 1686'. 

2004       Conference 'Power and Space', Dresden, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft collaborativeresearch area 537 'Institutionality and History', G. Schwerhoff, cf. Publications.

2002       *Berlin, Conference 'Centenary of Eastern European History in Berlin', German, cf. publications.

2002       University of Leeds, interdiscipl. conf. 'Siberia, Land and Peoples: Destruction or Survival', Title: 'The Sovereign's Affair and the Cossack Band in Siberia, 17th-18th cc'.

2001       *Humboldt University Berlin, chair, Eastern European History, L. Thomas and H. Rüß, Title: 'Kormlenie als Generalisierter Tausch und Entlohnung'.

2001       *University of London Institute of Historical Research seminar 'Europe 1500-1800', Title: 'Institutional Culture and the Government of Siberia'.

1999       *Two weeks at the University of Novosibirsk and the Russian Academy of Science.

1997       *Herder-Institut, Marburg, postgraduate seminar

1996       *Nordost-Institut, Lüneburg, postgraduate seminar

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Slavery, Ransom and Liberation in Russia and the Steppe Area, 1500-2000

  

International Conference Linklater Rooms, University of Aberdeen, UK Programme
Monday, 15 June 2009
09.00	Introduction	The Principal, University of Aberdeen.
Panel I:  Captivity and Bondage in Imperial Russia                     Chair: Robert Frost
09.30	ALESSANDRO STANZIANI (Paris) 'Slavery and Bondage in the Russian Empire, 17th-19th Centuries'
10.00	HANS-HEINRICH NOLTE (Hanover/Germany) 'Captives (Yasyri) in Russia'
10.30	PETER B. BROWN (Rhode Island) 'The Demise of the Crimean Khanate and the Demise of Serfdom: Was There a Relationship?'
11.05	Break
Panel II:  Forms and Comparisons of Slavery                      Chair: Alessandro Stanziani
11.20	NUR SOBERS KHAN (Cambridge/UK) 'Ottoman Slaves: A Paragon of 16th-century Social and Economic Integration? The Court Registers of Galata'
11.50	CHARLES L. WILKINS (Winston-Salem, NC) 'Slavery and Household Formation in Ottoman Aleppo, 1640-1700'
12.30	Lunch
Panel III:  Late Medieval Slaveries                                                     Chair: Peter Brown
14.00	BULAT R. RAKHIMZYANOV (Kazan') 'Ransom for the Grand Prince: One Military Medieval Event as a Beginning of Russian Imperial History'
14.30	LAWRENCE N. LANGER (Connecticut) 'Slavery in the Appanage Era: Rus' and the Mongols'
15.00	JUKKA KORPELA (Joensuu/Finland) '"i polona mnogo privedoša v Novgorod" – Finnish Slaves in East European Slave Trade?'
15.30	Break
16.00	Key note				DON OSTROWSKI (Harvard) 'Interconnectedness: The Integration of Early Modern Russia into World History'
17.00	Discussion, 1st day papers
19.00	Dinner

 

 

 

Tuesday, 16 June 2009
Panel IV: Slaving, Trade and Demography                         Chair: Don Ostrowski
9.00	OLEKSANDER HALENKO (Kyiv) 'The Traffic of Slaves from Eastern Europe and the Caucasus into Ottoman Territory as Reflected in the Ottoman Customs and Market Regulations of the 16th Century'
9.30	ALEKSANDR LAVROV (Paris) 'How Many Captives from Eastern Europe Lived in the 17th-century Crimean Khanate?'
10.00	ZÜBEYDE GÜNEŞ YAĞCI (Balikesir/Turkey) 'The Black Sea Slave Trade According to the İstanbul Port Customs Register, 1606-1608'
10.45	Break
Panel V: Slavery and Trans-cultural Contacts                         Chair : Karin Friedrich
11.00	ALEKSANDRA PORADA (Warsaw; Wrocław) 'Poles in the Caucasian Corps, 1830-early 1860s: Personal Freedom, Political Independence, Captivity and Slavery as Ideas and Experience'
11.30	WILL SMILEY (Cambridge/UK) 'Contacts through Captivity: Russian Prisoners and Ottoman Reforms'
12.00	BRIAN BOECK (Chicago) 'Ransom as Cross-Cross Cultural Business: Don Cossack and Tatar Brokers 1650-1750'
12.45		Lunch
Panel VI: Slavery and Identity                         Chair: Oleksander Halenko
14.15	HUSEYIN OYLUPINAR (Edmonton/Canada) 'The Theme of Captivity in Ukrainian Dumy: Identity Construction in the 17th  Century.'
14.45	BRIAN L. DAVIES (San Antonio/TX) 'The Prisoner's Tale: Russian Captivity Narratives and Perceptions of the Ottoman-Tatar Dar-al-Islam'
15.15	CHRISTOPH WITZENRATH (Aberdeen) 'Redemption from Captivity in Muscovite Culture'
15.50		Break
Panel VII: After Slavery                                                          Chair: Paul Dukes
16.15	KELLY O'NEILL (Harvard) 'The Role of the Russian Empire in the End of Slavery in the Black Sea'
16.45	DMITRY V. SHLAPENTOKH (South Bend/IN) 'Slaves and Prisoners as a Symbol of Russia's Perennial Struggle against East and West: The Case of Vasilii Ian's Writings'
17.15	Final Discussion
19.30	Dinner

 

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Conference Report

  

Slavery, Ransom and Liberation in Russia and the Steppe Area, 1500-2000

Recent research has demonstrated that early modern slavery was much more widespread than the traditional concentration on plantation slavery in the context of European colonial expansion would suggest. Slavery and slave trading, though little researched, were common across wide stretches of Eurasia, and a slave economy played a vital part in the political and cultural contacts between Russia and its Eurasian neighbours. This edited volume of international conference contributions concentrates on captivity, slavery, ransom and abolition in the vicinity of the Eurasian steppe from the early modern period to recent developments and explores their legacy and relevance down to the mid-twentieth century. The contributions centre on the Russian Empire, while bringing together scholars from various historical traditions of the leading states in this region, including Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire, and their various successor states. At the centre of attention are transfers, transnational fertilisations and the institutions, rituals and representations facilitating enslavement, exchanges and ransoming. Slaving, ransoming and captivity have long been marginal subjects of historical research in this area; however, recently historians in Russian imperial history and in some other fields have returned to take a fresh look at a subject that continues to influence mutual perceptions in the area as demonstrated by popular culture, social movements and nineteenth century discourse on Northern American slavery. There is widespread agreement that the field needs investigation in all areas neighbouring the steppe, and recently sprouting research should be connected.

Synopsis of papers and debates

Contributions defined and quantified slavery, covering various regions in the steppe and its vicinity and looked at trans-cultural issues and the implications of slavery and ransom for connectedness across the steppe. The conference has contributed significantly to the discussion about the definition of slavery which has recently been revived against the backdrop of the new history of bonded labour, particularly concerning the Russian Empire.  A. Stanziani argues that previously influential definitions of slavery in Russia should be revised: Russians did not 'enslave themselves' (R. Hellie) since the 'kholopy' were in almost all cases similar to indentured labourers; however, he finds real slavery in Russia. Nolte agrees; however, he elaborates on the status of yasyri as war captives in the east, who due to heterodoxy became slaves beyond the protection of the Orthodox herd by the tsar in his capacity of symbolic 'shepherd'. In the debate, P. Brown highlighted that indentured kholopy became the property of their owners after three years non-repayment, making them effectively slaves. Stanziani compared these conditions to African debt bondage. For the medieval period up to the late fifteenth century Langer showed that slaves did not yet enjoy the same level of rights as during later periods. Korpela recalls the many western captives who became part of the disenfranchised workforce, in this case members of the Finnic tribes who have been overlooked almost entirely. Several papers focus on diverse living conditions for slaves in the Ottoman Empire. Yagci and Khan agree on surprisingly low but significant numbers of slaves from Eastern Europe in their samples from Constantinople registers, which are skewed by the character of the sources used and the highly-skilled marine professions in which the slaves were employed in ship-yards. For relatively distant Aleppo, however, Wilkins concludes that the largest group of slaves came from Russia and Georgia; most of them were acquired by soldiers fighting in the Caucasus, although female slave owners held many. Slaves as social resource gave established elite urban households the means to reinforce and advance their pre-eminence. Ostrowski's key note balances the disruptive and interconnecting effects of slaving, pointing out that the booming demand for slaves in the early modern period aimed at intensification of labour by bondage when increasing mobility proved disruptive. The slave trade enabled trans-cultural contacts, as several articles show in detail. Boeck exonerates often-reviled ransom brokers for introducing reliable customary norms and terms of exchange into a complex cross-cultural exchange, at least for those who could afford their services. Lavrov's female captives were mostly far from such purchased comforts; moreover, they found it more difficult than men in their petitions for ransom relief to take credit for their specific personal experiences - significantly, they never mentioned sexual exploitation. Lavrov cannot find petitions of Russian female kholopy returning from captivity, concluding their situation may not have differed much in the Ottoman and Russian Empires. At the outset of Muscovite imperial history, Rakhimzyanov maps the role of the captivity and ransom of Grand Prince Vasilii II in 1445 in the foundation of the Kasimov khanate under the suzerainty of the Moscow prince and consequently, for the preparedness of Muscovy to take on the challenge of trans-cultural exchanges with the Tatars. Such exchanges intensified after the conquest of Kazan and again in the 18^th and 19^th centuries, when educated Russian captives were employed to reform the Ottoman army, as Smiley shows. Ottoman notions concerning prisoners of war increasingly dove-tailed with changed European international law. Tri-partite exchanges and contacts took place among Polish exiles in the Caucasian Corps, whose personal experience with slaving in some cases qualified notions of liberty and oppression, for others, however, led to sometimes successful change of sides. O'Neill traces the significance and forms of the slave trade in the nineteenth century, demonstrating that notwithstanding considerable efforts under the surface of abolition in the Russian Empire and in spite of British presence the trade in the Black Sea region until the 1860s remained a factor of regional integration beyond imperial purview and significant enough to merit study. Shlapentokh discusses popular literature during the Stalin period, which revived Russian nationalist ideas about the destructive force of slaving and the suffering of captives.

The final debate compared slaveries and slave trades worldwide, emphasizing that the end of slavery in the Mediterranean and the steppe did not occur due to capitalisation, which was marginal. Rather, bondage was stepped up to intensify economic activity when increased mobility during the early modern period proved disruptive for discipline. In the Ottoman Empire, slavery was part of ostentatious consumption. The Spanish invented chattel slavery in the New World, profiting from low costs of preventing new populations from escaping. Moreover, sugar plantations quickly exhausting the soil were only profitable on fresh soils of the New World, boosting the tri-partite trade. Ottoman plans in the 1560s-1570s to expand into the Caribbean foundered on inefficient ship building technology. The need to supply major cities overrode interests of private merchants and low tariff policy was unfavourable when facing the burgeoning mercantilist states.

Biographies of Contributing Authors

1.      Donald Ostrowski, Ph.D. (Columbia), Lecturer in Extension, Harvard University.

2.      Brian L. Davies, Ph.D., Associate Professor, University of Texas at San Antonio.

3.      Peter B. Brown, Ph.D. (Chicago), Professor, Rhode Island College.

4.      Brian Boeck, Ph.D. (Harvard), Assistant Professor, DePaul University.

5.      Charles L. Wilkins, Ph.D. (Harvard), Assistant Professor, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC.

6.      Alessandro Stanziani, Full Professor (directeur d'études), EHESS (Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales), Paris. Senior Researcher (Directeur de recherches) at CNRS (National Council for Scientific Researches), Department: IDHE, Ecole Normale Supérieure (Cachan).

7.      Nur Sobers Khan, Ph.D. candidate in Ottoman history, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, UK. 2007 Moody-Stuart Scholarship in Turkish Studies.

8.      Bulat R. Rakhimzyanov, Ph.D., Senior Research Fellow, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan. Associate Professor, Kazan State Power Engineering University.

9.      Lawrence N. Langer, Ph.D. (Chicago), Associate Professor Emeritus. Director of the Center for Slavic and East European Studies, University of Connecticut, 1976- 2003. Editor of Russian History.

10.  Hans-Heinrich Nolte, Professor Emeritus, University of Hannover, Germany.

11.  Kelly O'Neill, Ph.D. (Harvard), Assistant Professor, Harvard University.

12.  Aleksandr Lavrov, Ph.D., Professor, University of Paris 8.

13.  Zübeyde Güneş Yağcı, Assistant Professor, Balikesir University, Turkey.

14.  Jukka Korpela, Ph.D., Professor. Head of Department, University of Joensuu, Finland.

15.  Dmitry V. Shlapentokh, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Indiana University South Bend.

16.  Huseyin Oylupinar, Ph.D. candidate, University of Alberta; Research Assistant at the Center for Ukrainian and Canadian Folklore.

17.  Aleksandra Porada, Ph.D. candidate, Graduate School of Social Research, Warsaw. Lecturer, Warsaw School of Social Research and Humanities, Wrocław.

18.  Will Smiley, Ph.D. candidate, University of Cambridge, Queens' College, Oriental Studies. Gates Cambridge Scholarship, 2008-2011.

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Publications

Contributions to Journals

Articles

• Witzenrath, C. 'Slavery, Redemption and Politics in Seventeenth-century Ukraine'. Harvard Ukrainian Studies.
• Witzenrath, C. (2010). 'The greatest transformation of the world of the seventeenth century'. Journal of Irish and Scottish Studies, vol 3, no. 2, pp. 87-99.
• Witzenrath, C. (2009). 'Sophia- divine wisdom, and justice in seventeenth-century Russia'. Cahiers du Monde Russe, vol 50, no. 2-3, pp. 409-429.

Scientific Reviews

• Witzenrath, C. (2009). 'Literacy and Orality in the Eurasian Frontier: Imperial Culture and Space in Seventeenth-Century Siberia and Russia'. Slavonic and East European Review, vol 87, no. 1, pp. 53-77.

Chapters in Books, Reports and Conference Proceedings

Chapters

• Witzenrath, C. (2011). 'S.U. Remezov, Cossack Adventurer, and the Opening of Siberia'. MT Poe & D Ostrowski (eds), in: Portraits of Old Russia: Imagined lives of ordinary people, 1300-1745. M.E. Sharpe, New York, pp. 209-221.
• Witzenrath, C. (2006). 'Orthodoxe Kirche und Fernmacht: Das Moskauer Reich, die Kosaken und die Gründung des Bischofssitzes von Tobolsk und Sibirien 1620-1625'. C Hochmuth & S Rau (eds), in: Machträume in der frühneuzeitlichen Stadt. Konflikte und Kultur, vol. 13, UVK Verlagsgesellschaft, Konstanz, Germany, pp. 309-332.

Books and Reports

Books

• Witzenrath, C. (2007). 'Cossacks and the Russian Empire, 1598-1725: Manipulation, Rebellion and Expansion into Siberia'. Routledge, London.

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